Apothecary in 15th Century Italy – Eugenio Larosa
In an age when medicine and well-being were intimately connected to natural remedies, the apothecary played a crucial role, not merely as a merchant but as a custodian of ancient knowledge and traditional practices.
THE TRAINING
In 15th-century Italy, the apothecary occupied a prominent position, situated between the more prestigious intellectual professions, such as notaries and physicians, and the trades associated with commerce and craftsmanship. Although a university education was not required to enter the profession, an apprenticeship in a workshop over several years was typically sufficient. Nonetheless, the role demanded a broad and comprehensive body of knowledge. Those who pursued this path were expected to master a wide range of specialised skills, thereby establishing the apothecary as a central figure in the society of the time.
The training of an apothecary, like that of many other crafts in the 15th century, was a long and demanding journey. It began with an apprenticeship under a master apothecary, officially recognised by the guild, and could last up to 25 years. During this period, the apprentice gained hands-on experience by working in the shop and learning directly through daily practice. However, the training was not solely practical; the apprentice also studied medieval texts on pharmacology and, more frequently, widely used books of medical recipes.
One notable example is the Nuovo Ricettario Fiorentino of 1499, which consolidated over a century of accumulated knowledge in the apothecary’s art and was considered highly innovative for its time. This official pharmacopoeia recommended a series of authoritative reference texts, including “the herbalist Simon of Genoa, the Pandects, Avicenna and his herbals, the Almansore, the fourth book of the Servitore, the antidote book of Mesue, and the antidote book of Nicholas”, so that the practitioner might “diligently select, gather, prepare, preserve, and compose all prescriptions.” (“uno semplicista chome è Symon Genovese, le Pandette, Avicenna et li semplici suoi, et chosì l’Almansore, el quarto del Servitore, lo anthidotario di Mesue et l’anthidotario di Nicholao, a fine che possa eleggiere, cogliere, preparare, conservare et conporre con diligentia tutte le ricepte“).
One of the most influential pharmaceutical treatises of the period was written by the physician Saladino d’Ascoli, who offered a vivid and prescriptive portrait of the ideal apothecary—an image that would later be adopted in various guild statutes:
“He should not be a child nor too young, nor arrogant, pompous, or devoted to women and vanity; he must refrain from gambling and wine, be sober, and not indulge in luxuries or banquets. He must be diligent, attentive, with a kind and honest spirit, fearing God and his conscience. He should be upright and just, especially conscientious towards the poor. He must also be well-educated and skilled in his craft, not a crude novice, because he holds human life in his hands, the most precious of goods.”
(“non deve essere fanciullo né troppo giovane, né superbo, pomposo, o dedito alle donne e alla vanità; si astenga dal gioco e dal vino, sia sobrio e non indulga alle carapule e disdegni i banchetti: ma sia premuroso, sollecito, di animo mite e onesto, timoroso di Dio e della propria coscienza. Sia retto e giusto, coscienzioso soprattutto verso i poveri. Sia anche ben istruito ed esperto nell’arte sua, non rozzo novellino, perché deve avere tra le mani la vita umana che è il bene più prezioso.”)
As this evidence demonstrates, there is no mention of formal academic training. This distinction underscores the difference between the apothecary and the more prestigious figure of the physician, whose role required university study. Nonetheless, the two professions often coexisted within the same family. A notable example is the Florentine apothecary Luca Landucci, famous for his Diario, whose son Antonio pursued a medical degree at the University of Bologna.
THE APOTHECARY SHOP
One should not assume that the apothecary’s activity was limited to the sale of medicinal spices. In fact, much of the daily business of a 15th-century apothecary revolved around the trade of a wide variety of goods intended for diverse purposes. The apothecary’s shop functioned as a true emporium—a central point in the life of the community, where individuals could obtain essential items for both daily living and artisanal work.
Alongside remedies and medicinal preparations, the apothecary offered spices and aromatic herbs for cooking, perfumes and cosmetics for personal care, as well as dried fruits and sweeteners such as honey and sugar. The shop might also sell materials useful to other trades: dyes for textiles and painting, wax for candles, soap, pitch, glue, paper, and even substances employed in tanning leather.
As was common in other guild-based professions, the corporations encouraged family continuity by offering economic advantages to sons and male relatives of guild members, an element that reinforced a predominantly male presence in the profession. Nevertheless, documentary evidence shows that women sometimes played a supporting role, particularly wives or sisters who managed the shop in the apothecary’s absence.
The 1480 Florentine catasto (tax records) and the Libro delle Senserie offer detailed descriptions of apothecary shops in late 15th-century Florence, which can often be applied to other urban centres in Italy. Each shop was distinguished by its unique sign, frequently mentioned in notarial records along with the name and location of the establishment.
It was common practice to display goods outside the shop—an approach that occasionally led to friction with neighbouring merchants. In some cities, regulations were introduced to prohibit benches, tables, or other items from being placed outdoors, in order to avoid obstructing the view of adjacent businesses. An apothecary’s shop could be run by a single practitioner or by several working in partnership. In some cases, the business operated as a shared venture, with each apothecary contributing capital to finance the enterprise.
Shops often included a back room used for storing supplies and preparing certain remedies. This space required careful control of environmental factors, such as airflow, lighting, humidity, as well as close attention to hygiene.
The Ricettario Fiorentino of 1499 recommended that the apothecary choose a location suited to preserving both simple and compound substances, with specific characteristics:
“A site and location for his shop, suited to preserving all simple and composite substances, which should have these properties or most of them, namely that it is protected from wind, dust, sunlight, humidity, and smoke.”
(“un sito et luogo per sua botegha apto a preservare tutte le chose semplice et composite, il quale sito habbia queste proprietà, o le più, cioè che sia rimosso da vento, da polvere, da sole, da humidità et fumo”)
Among the most essential tools in the apothecary’s workshop were those used for weighing. Shops were typically equipped with small, medium, and large balance scales, employed for various tasks, from preparing medicinal compounds (composita) to selling items to the public and verifying the weight of coins.
In the back room, one might also find grinding mills, mortars of various sizes, and distillation equipment used to produce more elaborate preparations.
Naturally, the shop contained a variety of containers for storing the numerous products and preparations. In addition to ubiquitous ceramic vessels, available in various shapes and sizes, sometimes glazed on the interior but always carefully sealed, there were also leather pouches and wooden chests of different dimensions.
Metal containers were likewise common, particularly those made from pewter (a tin alloy) or copper alloys such as bronze and brass. These were typically reserved for storing medicinae molli (soft medicines) or unguenta (ointments), which required greater protection from air and contamination.
THE GOODS
When it came to medicinal preparations, every apothecary’s shop offered a wide range of products, including syrups, ointments, plasters, pills, oils, waters, and distillates.
Syrups, also known as giulebbi, were typically made by combining concentrated plant juices with sugar in equal parts (1:1), then cooking the mixture until it reached the desired consistency. Ointments and poultices (empiastri) were prepared using fatty substances blended with wax, resulting in a creamy texture that made them easier to apply. Their appearance and consistency were not unlike those of modern cosmetic creams.
Plasters were produced by enriching fatty mixtures with resins and soaps derived from heavy metals. These preparations were then spread onto cloth bandages prior to application. Pills, also known as trocisci, were made by combining dried medicinal ingredients with plant juices, distilled waters, plain water, or dairy products, and kneading the mixture into a malleable form. Oils were obtained either through the pressing of fruits and plants or by infusing plant material in a base liquid.
Waters and distillates were prepared by different methods: waters were made by infusing herbs and spices in liquids such as water, wine, vinegar, or brandy, whereas distillates were produced through the process of distillation.
As previously mentioned, apothecaries also supplied raw materials used in the production of pigments. These included stones, mineral powders, and pigment cakes, which were commonly purchased by artists for paint-making. A notable example is Masaccio (born Tommaso di Ser Giovanni Cassai), who was officially registered with the Guild of Physicians and Apothecaries.
THE CHARLATANS
As previously discussed, the profession of apothecary could be highly profitable, an aspect that inevitably attracted the attention of opportunists. Among them were the so-called charlatans: individuals who practised the apothecary’s trade without proper training or authorisation, often offering their remedies at lower prices.
These unauthorised practitioners were viewed with suspicion and, when apprehended, faced severe punishments. Their actions not only undermined the economic interests of the Apothecaries’ Guild, but also posed significant risks to public health, occasionally resulting, as contemporary records lamented, in “the deaths of many people” (“molte volte molte persone che ne muoiono”). Apothecaries who failed to report the presence of charlatans, or who were found to be trading with them, were themselves subject to financial penalties.
According to some sources, even Niccolò Machiavelli may have fallen victim to such malpractice: it is said that he died from an overdose of pills containing aloe and cardamom, prescribed by a charlatan doctor.
A “HOLY” RECIPE
Let us conclude this exploration of the apothecary’s world with a curious recipe attributed to a saintly figure. While assisting patients at the Hospital of Santa Maria in Siena, Bernardino of Siena is said to have conceived a remedy that was later regarded as a genuine cure for the plague:
“Take one-fourth of a common glass of brandy and an equal amount of good vinegar and walnut shell; mix everything and give it to the patient immediately upon feeling the plague’s sting, then have them lie down well-covered and sweat. If the brandy and vinegar are not enough to dilute the mixture well, add a little good wine, and you will see miraculous effects.”
(“Piglia la quarta parte d’un comunale bicchiere d’acqua vite e altre tanto di buono aceto et goscio di noce; mescola ogni cosa insieme et dà al patiente immediate che si sente ferire dalla peste et colchisi nel letto ben coperto et sudi, et quando non basti l’acqua vite et aceto a di stemperare bene aggiungervi un poco di vino buono che vedrai mirabile effetto.”)
This fascinating blend of healing, history, and faith reminds us that the art of the apothecary encompassed far more than the preparation of medicines. It represented a vital connection to the life, suffering, and hopes of entire communities.
Author’s Note
This booklet was created to provide a general overview of the apothecary in 15th-century Italy, a key figure in the everyday life of the period.
Given the breadth and complexity of the subject, I have adopted an informative approach, aiming to highlight the most significant connections among the various documentary sources consulted.
Through this exploration of the apothecary’s world, readers are invited to consider the many dimensions of the profession: from the long and demanding training process to the wide-ranging skills it required, and from the diversity of products offered to the essential role these professionals played in serving their communities.
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